1. An observational study finds that children whose parents eat lots of nutritious artichokes eat more artichokes than children whose parents don’t eat lots of artichokes. So parents should eat more artichokes.

1A. Write the causal model that is the likely basis of the recommendation that parents eat more artichokes? Use substantive words from the above sentences, not just jargon like ‘X’ and ‘Y’.

1B. Write an alternative causal model. Use substantive words from the above sentences, not just jargon like ‘X’ and ‘Y’.

1C. Describe a study designed to provide evidence regarding whether the alternative causal model is correct.

2. A researcher is interested in whether windmills cause hearing damage. They compare the proportion of residents living near windmills who have poor hearing to the proportion with poor hearing living near solar panels. More elderly people live near windmills than live near solar panels.

Evaluate how the fact described in the last sentence of the above is important for the research study. Describe why it is important and how the researcher might address it. 

3. He won’t get flukerosis. He doesn’t live with anybody who has flukerosis, and he doesn’t go near anyone when he goes outside.

Write the above argument as a suppositionally inescapable syllogism in standard form. You’ll need to supply one premise that isn’t explicitly stated.

4. You can use a pojart if you know the workers there. But you can’t go to that club if you are under 18.

Explain what these sentences imply, in terms of necessary and sufficient conditions, for being able to drive a pojart and being able to go to that club.

5. A medical test for a disease called endotrichomeiosis has a sensitivity of 90% and a specificity of 95%.

5A. Is having endotrichomeiosis necessary to get a positive result? Explain why.

5B. Explain whether having endotrichomeiosis is sufficient to get a positive result. 

6. You can’t get a first on that exam without studying. Jo got a first. So Jo studied.

6A. What type of reasoning is the above?

6B. The terms suppositionally inescapable, inescapable, suppositionally solid, and solid, explain which apply and why.

7. Mr. Johnson makes a chart of seven random countries and some of their characteristics such as whether they have high‐speed trains, the number of lakes each country has, and what people eat. Mr. Johnson notices that all of the seven countries that have high‐speed trains also have a lot of people who eat rice every day. Based on that evidence, Mr. Johnson then suggests that all countries in the world that have high‐speed trains also have a lot of people who eat rice every day.

7. What kind of reasoning is this an example of? Explain your answer.

Woolworths becomes suspicious that one of the farms they buy from, Sunnyside, has more worms in their apples than a second farm, Delitch. The null hypothesis it that Sunnyside’s apples have no more worms than Delitch’s. Woolworths take a random truckload of apples from Sunnyside and from Delitch and count how many have worms in each. They then do a statistical test to determine whether the two farms differ. Based on the statistical test, Woolworths concludes that the two farms do differ.

8. Woolworths could justify their conclusion that the farms are different using two if‐ then statements and a conclusion sentence. Write the three statements (the if‐then statements and the conclusion) below and indicate whether the argument is deductive or inductive.

Attending university is immoral. With the money spent on tuition, fees, and other university‐related costs students and their parents could save at least thirty peoples’ lives in Africa. If one can save thirty peoples’ lives, then it is immoral not to do so.

9. Indicate what the conclusion of the above argument is and explain why university students especially may have trouble evaluating whether the conclusion of this argument follows from the premises.